Foreign substances in the body that are too small to start an immune response by themselves are called hapten .
Antigens are compounds, typically proteins, found on the surface of bacteria, fungi, viruses, or cells. Antigens can also include nonliving things including poisons, chemicals, medications, and foreign objects (like a splinter). Antigen-containing compounds are recognized by the immune system, which then attempts to destroy them.
What is a hapten in immunology?
Hapten, also spelled haptene, small molecule that stimulates the production of antibody molecules only when conjugated to a larger molecule, called a carrier molecule. Related Topics: epitope antigen.
What is the difference between antigen and hapten?
An antigen is a complete molecule that can initiate an immune response on its own, whereas a hapten is an unfinished molecule that is incapable of initiating an immunological response on its own. Two forms of immunogens that can cause immunological reactions are antigen and hapten.Learn more about hapten
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Staphylococcus bacteria are commonly present in the human nasal cavity and rarely cause disease in the upper respiratory system. Which type of symbiosis does this represent
Staphylococcus bacteria are commonly present in the human nasal cavity and rarely cause disease in the upper respiratory system. Which type of symbiosis does this represent commensalism.
What is staphylococcus bacteria?Numerous virulence factors, including hemolysins, leukocidins, proteases, enterotoxins, exfoliative toxins, and immune-modulating substances, are produced by the bacterium aureus. During growth, these factors' expression is strictly controlled.Molecules with phagocyte-destructive potential. The measles virus has the ability to weaken the immune system, deactivating host defenses.Numerous poisons, immune evasion mechanisms, and a wide range of protein.Non-protein substances that promote host colonization during infection are among them.
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How does sodium regulate the uptake of glucose into enterocytes?
Answer:
Sodium regulates the absorption of glucose by the enterocytes.
There are two basic types of transport systems for glucose:
- Sodium dependent glucose transporters (SGLTs)
- Glucose transporters (GLUTs)
Sodium is transported into cells actively by SGLTs, and glucose is transported into cells passively. The co-transport system's energy source are the sodium ions. In addition to other tissues, the GI brush-border membrane contains a very high number of SGLTs.
There are as many as 6 more related proteins, mostly expressed in the kidney, and at least 3 SGLTs (SGLT1-3) have been described from different species. The extracellular side of the SGLTs has both N and C terminal ends, totaling up to 15 transmembrane domains.
The GLUTs enable the diffusion of glucose, and some of them can also move other hexose carbohydrates. Due to amino acid sequences in the four hydrophilic domains of the 12 transmembrane domains, certain GLUT proteins are tissue-specific.
Does Pterocaulon Plystachyum affect cell division?
Answer:
polystachyum infusions produced the greatest inhibition of onion root-tip cell division and decreased mitotic index but there was no statistically significant intra or interpopulational variability for the P. polystachyum populations from different sites in regard to their cytotoxic effects.
A skeletal muscle is a composition of several components bundled one into the other. at which structural level in the muscle does contraction occur to bring about contraction in the whole muscle?
The structural level in which the muscle produces the contraction is known as the muscle fiber.
What is a muscle fiber?A muscle fiber is a single muscular cell that is able to contract by using specialized proteins such as filaments of myosin and actin.
This unit (muscle fiber) is able to contract both in vivo and in vitro by establishing suitable environmental conditions (e.g., proper calcium levels).
In conclusion, the structural level in which the muscle contracts is the muscle fiber.
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A family took their newborn to the doctor. They were worried something was wrong because the baby seemed to be in constant pain. After medical tests revealed the baby had large amounts of lactic acid accumulating in his muscle cells, doctors diagnosed the child with a rare disease in which mitochondria are missing from skeletal muscle cells. How might the lack of mitochondria explain the large amounts of lactic acid in the baby's muscle cells
Mitochondria help in the complete metabolism of sugar to produce energy in the cell (ATP). Mitochondria is the powerhouse of the cell.
Glycolysis is the first step in the metabolism of glucose. By the process of glycolysis, glucose is converted to pyruvate with the generation of ATP and NADH. The pyruvate is then converted to acetyl CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex which then enters the TCA cycle. The NADH FADH2 generated by Glycolysis and TCA cycle donate their electrons to the electron transport chain which in turn helps in the generation of ATP. Both the TCA cycle and the Electron transport chain take place within the mitochondria. In the absence of mitochondria, NAD+ and FAD are regenerated by fermentation.
In the process of converting 3-carbon pyruvate to 3-carbon lactic acid (C3H6O3), lactic acid fermentation also regenerates NAD+, which enables glycolysis to continue producing ATP in the absence of mitochondria. This leads to the accumulation of lactic acid in muscle cells.
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What similarities are there between the ways archaea and bacteria react to difficult environmental conditions?
Archaea and bacteria both have flagella, thread-like structures that allows organisms to help them move forward through their environment.
Three broad branches into which life on earth is divided, those are Eukarya, Archaea and Bacteria. Archaea and bacteria were considered as the part of same taxonomic kingdom as both were considered prokaryotic organisms with no nucleus.
Through research scientist discovered that archaea has prominent molecular differences from bacteria. Genetic inspection also revealed that Archaea and Eukarya have a closer phylogenetic relationship to one another than to Bacteria.
Archaea and Bacteria both being prokaryotes , they don't have a nucleus and lack membrane-bound organelles. They are tiny and single-cell organisms and they exist as rods, cones, plates and coil.
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In the marine mollusk, Aplysia, serotonin binds to a G-protein-coupled receptor and activates a Gs subunit. The resulting activation of PKA leads to phosphorylation and closure of K channels. What effect would this have on the cell
The serotonin binds to a G-protein -coupled receptor and activates a G-subunit . This results in activation of PKA and closing of the potassium channels. This will subsequently decrease the influx of potassium ions into the cell, and lead to depolarization of the cell. This changes the membrane potential of the cell.
Aplysia are sea slugs which fall under the category of mollusks. Serotonin is a hormone which is responsible for the transfer of electrical signals from the brain to different parts. In this particular mollusk, serotonin was studied to find that it is an essential neurotransmitter that is responsible for the maintenance of synaptic plasticity in the neurons. Synaptic plasticity is the feature which is essential for the communication of neurons. This is the modification which occurs at the synapses during the transmission of synapses. Without this activity, the transmission of signals would be impossible.
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he coronary sinus is a modified vein that collects venous blood from all areas of the heart and drains it directly into the left atrium of the heart.
The given statement that the coronary sinus is a modified vein that collects venous blood from all areas of the heart and drains it directly into the left atrium of the heart is true
What is coronary sinus?On the backside of the left atrium, within the left atrioventricular groove, is the coronary sinus, a sizable venous structure. The coronary sinus is responsible for removing venous blood from the bulk of the heart. Between the right atrioventricular orifice, the fossa ovalis, and the inferior vena cava aperture, it enters the right atrium. A thin, semicircular endocardial fold, also known as the Thebesian valve, frequently protects the coronary sinus.
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Hormones called ________ are involved in regulation of white blood cell populations.
Hormones called Colony-stimulating factors are involved in regulation of white blood cell populations.
They are the master regulators of granulocyte and macrophage populations. As well as they are hematopoietic growth factors that induce clonal growth of hematopoietic progenitors in vitro and in vivo.
It is a substance that stimulates the production of blood cells.
The Colony-stimulating factors include granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), and promegapoietin.
The Colony stimulating factors circulate in the blood, acting as hormones, and are also secreted locally. One example of it is erythropoietin.
The main function of it is to increase the immune system by increasing the number of neutrophils produced.
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Hunter syndrome is a rare genetic disorder in which large sugar molecules called glycosaminoglycans build up in body tissues. Hunter syndrome causes abnormalities in many organs, including the skeleton, heart, and respiratory system. In severe cases, this leads to death during the teenage years. Hunter syndrome is caused by a recessive gene on the X chromosome. If a woman who is normal (but had a father with the disease) marries a normal man, what are the chances of having a daughter affected by the disease
Answer:
Hunter syndrome is a very rare, inherited genetic disorder caused by a missing or malfunctioning enzyme. In Hunter syndrome, the body doesn't have enough of the enzyme iduronate 2-sulfatase.
What is the difference between running a sam spade investigation versus searching dns records?
In the case of DNS record; You launch windows command by navigating to start. -Type NSLOOKUP and then press enter. -Afterwards you enter the name you wish to query. On the other hand, Sam space is mainly run on the network and it can be used by network administrators to track down intruders and hackers.
Sam Spade for Windows offers a suite of tools for protecting against spam on mail servers, analyzing and troubleshooting web servers, and gathering information on Internet hosts.
DNS records (aka zone files) are instructions that live in authoritative DNS servers and provide information about a domain including what IP address is associated with that domain and how to handle requests for that domain.
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Relatively speaking, how much atp is produced by glycolysis and the citric acid cycle?
2 ATPs are produced in the TCA cycle per glucose molecule (2 acetyl CoA).
The ATP that is produced by glycolysis and the citric acid cycle is, both yield a small amount of ATP.
Citric acid cycle is also known as Krebs cycle, which breaks down the pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide. As a result to which it produces 2 ATP and 6 NADH, for every glucose molecule entering glycolysis.
Krebs cycle is a series of reactions that occurs in the matrix of mitochondria. It takes in acetyl CoA and produces carbon dioxide.
The overall yield of energy-containing compounds from the citric acid cycle is three NADH, one FADH2, and one GTP.
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What type of covalent bond is responsible for holding together the secondary structure of proteins
Answer :Hydrogen Bonds
Explanation:
When any of your body cells becomes infected with a pathogen, to what protein do the foreign peptides become attached that initiates the immune response
Interferons
Virally infected cells produce and release small proteins called interferons, which play a role in immune protection against viruses.
What are Interferons ?Interferons prevent replication of viruses, by directly interfering with their ability to replicate within an infected cell.
They also act as signalling molecules that allow infected cells to warn nearby cells of a viral presence – this signal makes neighbouring cells increase the numbers of MHC class I molecules upon their surfacesSo that T cells surveying the area can identify and eliminate the viral infection.Learn more about Interferons here:
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Coalescent theory uses which two values when evaluating diversity of population and attempting to estimate recent history of a population?
Coalescent theory uses Effective population size (Ne) and mutation rate (µ) hen evaluating diversity of population and attempting to estimate recent history of a population.
A genealogy's gene divergence distribution can be modeled using the coalescent. It is frequently used to calculate population genetic characteristics in natural populations, including population size, migration rates, and recombination rates.Every finite set of genes or alleles has a "coalescent point" where all descendants converge to a single ancestor (i.e., they "coalesce") under the conditions of genetic drift alone.To measure population genetic diversity, it is frequently utilized. characteristics including the size of the population, migration patterns, and Rates of recombination in unmanipulated populationsIt was first created by as the "n-coalescent" Kingman (1982). Others call it the "Kingman." "the coalescent," or simply "the coalescent".learn more about Coalescent theory here: https://brainly.com/question/9640986
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Which procedure involves excision of the pituitary gland through the sphenoid sinus without disturbing brain tissue?
According to the research, the correct option is transsphenoidal surgery, this procedure implies the excision of the pituitary gland through the sphenoid sinus without disturbing brain tissue.
What is transsphenoidal surgery?It is a treatment for pituitary tumors that uses the endoscope as a source of vision and that allows the doctor to reach the pituitary gland and nearby areas through the sphenoid sinus, preserving nasal anatomy and functionality.
Generally, this technique is indicated for patients with microadenomas as well as macroadenomas and other pathologies in the region that cause symptoms such as vision loss, headaches, or hormone-related problems.
Therefore, we can conclude that the correct option is transsphenoidal surgery, this procedure implies the excision of the pituitary gland through the sphenoid sinus without disturbing brain tissue.
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Comparisons of tooth wear in living apes and extinct Miocene apes suggest that some extinct species of apes ate Group of answer choices leaves, grass, and bark. nuts, fruits, and small animals. leaves, nuts, and fruits. insects, fruit, and leaves.
Comparisons of tooth wear in living apes and extinct Miocene apes suggest that some extinct species of apes ate a Group of leaves, nuts, and fruits.
THE MIOCENE APESAs many as 30 species of apes lived in large areas of Africa, Asia, and Europe during the Miocene, when they underwent their largest radiation.
What led to the reduction in the number of ape species?The diversity of ape species decreased during the Late Miocene as a result of climate changes that increased seasonality (and progressively replaced many forests with grasslands) and competition with an ever-increasing variety of monkey species.
Extinct species of apes ate:-Its teeth suggest that this species, which lived in forests, consumed fruits, seeds, leaves, and other types of plants. It most likely consumed some bamboo as well. About 100,000 years ago, the ice age began, and it drastically altered the landscape and the amount of tree cover. The G blacki needs a tremendous amount of food due to its size.
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What is the most likely effect of a mutation that changes the repeat sequence found in terc from 3’-cccaau-5’ to 3’-ucaggacg-5’?.
If the repeat sequence of telomere changes from 3’-cccaau-5’ to 3’-ucaggacg-5’ due to any mutation then the telomerase enzyme will be unable to attach to the 3' overhung of the telomere sequence and cannot elongate new DNA strand [telomeric part] as a result, the telomeres of chromosome cannot be elongated and the entire chromosome or the cell will be lost after few rounds of division.
Mutation: This can be described as a random change in the nucleotide sequence due to which the protein sequences change hindering the function performed by the particular protein.
Telomere: They are short repeating sequences found at the end of the chromosome whose function is to save the chromosomes from degradation.
But after each round of replication, the length of the telomeres becomes shorter than the previous and after a certain number of cell divisions, the telomeres become so short that they trigger the cell to stop dividing or to self-destruct (undergo apoptosis).
So, to prevent the shortening of telomeres, the TERC gene codes a telomerase enzyme which is a type of reverse transcriptase. After every cell division, the telomerase enzyme gets attached to the 3' end of the shortened telomere end and synthesizes the complementary DNA to the RNA part of the enzyme until the length of the telomere is restored again.
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Why is it important to homeostatically regulate csf composition independently of the blood?
It is very important to regulate homeostatically Cerebrospinal fluid composition because neurons are not like other cells they requires a unique environment to sustain its function properly. This homeostatic regulation also protects neurons from blood-borne proteins, cells and toxic factors.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is found in the subarachnoid space that surrounds the brain and spine and ventricles (Shaft-like spaces inside of the brain). The purpose of CSF is to provide nutrients, remove waste, and cushion the brain and spine. It is also important to drain CSF properly as pressure like hydrocephalus results from the gradual blockage of the CSF-draining pathways in the brain, that results in blockage of ventricles thus compressing the brain within and eventually damaging or destroying the brain tissue.
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Which molecule allows for crossbridge reformation by breaking the myosin and actin crossbridge?
a) acetylcholinesterase
b) acetylcholine
c) calcium
d) atp
ATP allows for crossbridge reformation by breaking the myosin and actin crossbridge. So the correct answer is d) atp
When ATP is bound to myosin head, and the myosin, cross bridges between actin and myosin are broken up, releasing ADP and P1, and the muscle returns to its relaxed condition. The myosin globular head, which extends from a myosin filament in muscle, is held to momentarily bind to a nearby actin filament and bring it into the A band of a sarcomere between the myosin filaments to form a cross bridge.
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Increasing the strength of the stimulus applied to the sensory receptor increased _______
The body of most fungi consists of threadlike _____, which form a network called a _____.
Answer:
The asnwer to your question is Hyphae and Mycelium
Explanation:
The body of most fungi consists of threadlike Hyphae, which form a network called a Mycelium.
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Compare the function of phototropism to the function of gravitropism. How does each of
these tropisms work?
(Hint: starch molecules and auxins should be part of your response.)
The function of phototropism can be compared best with the function of gravitropism by taking an example of statoliths (Starch molecules) in roots and auxin in stem.
Roots often bend away from light (i.e., exhibit negative phototropism) in the direction of gravity(i.e. exhibit positive gravitropism).
Whereas stem-like organs drive their growth toward the light (i.e., positive phototropism) and away from gravity (i.e., negative gravitropism) (i.e. positive gravitropism).
As in the instance of phototropism, positive tropisms react by migrating towards the direction of the stimulus source.
Auxin formation and blue light stimulation control this response's mechanism.
On the shaded side of the plant, where those cells are starting to elongate, the activation of the blue light results in a concentration of auxin, a plant hormone.
On the other hand, negative tropisms, like gravitropism in plant shoots, react by migrating away from the stimulus's source.
A unique type of cell called a statocyst contains statoliths, which are starch molecules that can settle within the statocysts in reaction to gravity.
These starch molecules accumulate on the bottom of the statocyst as they descend toward gravity, increasing auxin levels and encouraging cell elongation.
Hence, these two processes can be compared best with an example of statoliths (Starch molecules) in roots and auxin in stem.
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What are sizes of the fragments from an enzyme digestions (endonuclease) of the Lambda Phage plasmid DNA using Eco RI and Pst I? Make sure to have an uncut and double-cut reaction. Explain the mechanism of action of each enzyme and then list the fragment all sizes and draw the results.
Digestion of lambda DNA with Eco RI generated 6 fragments. The Pst I restriction enzyme produces 29 lambda DNA fragments.
What are restriction enzymes?Restriction enzymes are DNA-cutting enzymes found in bacteria. These are site-specific endonucleases also known as molecular scissors.These recognize and cut DNA only at a particular sequence of nucleotides.DNA from the bacteriophage Lambda (48,502 base pairs in length) is cut with a variety of restriction enzymes and the resulting fragments are separated using gel electrophoresis. Size of fragment of uncut lambda DNA is 48502 b.p.Eco RI recognizes G AATTC
CTTAA G
Lambda phage has 5 recogition sites for Eco RI. It cleaves the DNA at ‘G’ of the above sequence.Relative sites of cleavage in base pairs are 21226, 26104, 31747, 39168, 44972.Sizes of fragments produced when the lambda DNA cut with Eco RI 21226, 7421, 5804, 5643, 4878, 3530.Digestion of lambda DNA with EcoRI generated 6 fragments but 2 of them are so close in size that they are difficult to separate.Pst I recognizes CTGCA G
G ACGTC
The Pst I restriction enzyme produces 29 fragments of lambda DNA. It cleaves the DNA at ‘G’ of the above sequence.The Pst I digest of λ DNA yields the following discrete fragments (in base pairs): 11497, 5077, 4749, 4507, 2838, 2556, 2459, 2443, 2140, 1986, 1700, 1159 1093, 805, 514, 468, 448, 339, 264, 247, 216, 211, 200, 164, 150, 94, 87, 72 and 15.The cohesive ends (12b cos site of bacteriophage) of fragments 11501 bp and 2556 bp may anneal and form an additional band.Learn more about restriction enzymes here:
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You are part of a research group experimenting with signaling molecules that would tell cancer cells to stop dividing. The cancer cells have inactive receptors on their plasma membrane so you need an alternate method of getting the signals into the cells. What could you use
Gap junctions for direct contact is used to cancer cells have inactive receptors on their plasma membrane so you need an alternate method of getting the signals into the cells.
What about cancer cell?The MAP kinase route, which controls cell proliferation, and the phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) pathwayIt controls cell metabolism and survival, are the two RAS signaling pathways that are most frequently linked to cancer.Signaling pathways are affected by cancer-causing mutations. The genomic changes in cancer cells can be linked to signaling pathways that regulate tumor-related functions and put in the perspective of distorted larger signaling networks that promote cancer progression.To transmit signals from the extracellular environment to the cell nucleus, where they activate particular genes necessary for cell division, growth, and differentiation.Learn more about gap junction here:
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Select the correct answer from each drop-down menu.
Ruth is presenting the feedback model to her class. Help her complete the statements.
A negative feedback mechanism works by
of a system. A
restore the
variations in conditions. This feedback mechanism tries to negate changes to
feedback mechanism supports a change that occurs in the value of a parameter.
A negative feedback mechanism tries to negate changes so as to restore the variations that occurs in the value of a parameter or system.
What is Negative feedback?This is known to be a method that tend to reverses any kind of movement or deviation from the set point and it then keeps the body parameters to its normal range.
Note that A negative feedback mechanism tries to negate changes so as to restore the variations that occurs in the value of a parameter or system.
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____________________ evolution states that all life on earth is descended from other life and has transformed from, at times, very different ancestors.
Organic evolution states that all life on the earth is descended from from other life and has transformed from , at times , very different ancestors.
Evolutionary theory is based on ideas of species and related to their gradual decreases.It is given by Darwin which is based on natural selection. Evolution is not theory about the origin of life. Its express about that how species change over time and what many people think there is also little conflict between evolution.
Evolution is the process in which gradual change that takes places over many generation to generations in which species of animals , plants or insects slowly change some of their physical characteristics.
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The motor neuron and all the myofibers it innervates is referred to as a ____________ . every time a motor neuron sends a nerve impulse to a skeletal muscle fiber, the muscle fiber will
The motor neuron and all the myofibers it innervates is referred to as a __motor units__ . every time a motor neuron sends a nerve impulse to a skeletal muscle fiber, the muscle fiber will contract .
What is the motor units?
The motor unit is the association between the motor neuron and a group of fibers from the muscle.
A single muscle is composed of several motor units. The fibers composing each of them are just a little part of the whole muscle mass, meaning this is the part that will contract.
The motor unit is the basic unit from which the CNS controls motion.
How does contraction occur?The central nervous system (CNS) generates an action potential in the presynaptic membrane.
This action potential provokes the neurotransmitter release (acetylcholine, Ach) into the synaptic space.
The neurotransmitter travels through the synaptic space and reaches the postsynaptic membrane, where it binds to its receptors on the skeletal muscle fiber, causing ion channels to open.
Ion interchange between the extracellular space and the cell interior triggers a series of events that end by depolarizing the muscle fiber membrane, and leading to fiber contraction.
The motor neuron and all the myofibers it innervates is referred to as a _motor unit_ . every time a motor neuron sends a nerve impulse to a skeletal muscle fiber, the muscle fiber will contract.
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The activity of an enzyme is heavily influenced by its environment; in particular, ___, ___, and ___ have significant effects on the ability of an enzyme to carry out its function.
The activity of an enzyme is heavily influenced by its environment; in particular, temperature, acidity or alkalinity (pH), and high salinity have significant effects on the ability of an enzyme to carry out its function.
What is enzyme activity?Because molecules in a solution move more quickly at higher temperatures, there are more collisions between enzymes and substrates, which accelerates the pace of reaction. Competitive inhibitor molecules can bind to the enzyme's active site either temporarily or permanently.Temperature, pH, enzyme concentration, substrate concentration, and the existence of any inhibitors or activators are a few of the variables that influence how quickly enzymatic reactions go forward.Temperature and pH variations cause the intra- and intermolecular interactions that keep proteins in their secondary and tertiary structures to break down. The catalytic activity of an enzyme is pH and temperature sensitive, which has an impact on forms.Learn more about enzyme here:
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When the ground position of a front moves so that warm air occupies territory that was previously held by cold air, what type of front is it?
When the ground position of a front moves so that warm air occupies territory that was previously held by cold air, It is knows a warm front.
The area where a warm air mass is replacing a cold air mass is known as a warm front. The air behind a warm front is warmer and more humid than the air in front of it. Warm fronts typically migrate from the southwest to the northeast.A warm front is a density discontinuity that is usually seen on the margin of an isotherm gradient that faces the equator and is situated at the leading edge of a homogenous warm air mass. Since warm air is thicker and more difficult to remove from the surface of the Earth than cold air, warm fronts move more slowly than the cold fronts that typically follow them.
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