Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed Triple Alliance. Although it provided some protection against hostile action, it did not take into account how events must unfold.
Italy, Austria-Hungary, and Germany founded the Triple partnership to be a defense a collaboration. Each of the countries resolved to stand by one another in the event that French as well as Russian launched an attack. Safety for everyone had been the goal of treaty formation; establishing ties with other strong nations prevented your adversaries from attacking you. An entire nation would have had to battle all of its coalition partners once it launched to battle with a particular nation. The following collaboration's vulnerability was the reality that its actions were have been just reactionary in essence.
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Excess supply happens when quantity supplies is __________________ than quantity
demanded.
(U.S. Government and Economics)
Answer:
Excess supply happens when quantity supplied is greater than quantity demanded. This is also known as a surplus. In a market, when there is a surplus, there is more of a good or service available than consumers want to buy at the prevailing price. This can lead to a decrease in price as sellers try to attract buyers, or it can result in unsold inventory if prices cannot be adjusted quickly enough.
document 16.5: illustration of battle during chicago railroad workers' strike, 1877 as the source of reference
The source of reference for this document is the Chicago Historical Society. This image was published in the book "The Great Strikes of 1877: A Study in Labor Upheavals" by National Industrial Association in 1877. The book gives a detailed account of the strike and its accompanying events, including this illustration of the battle.
However, I can tell you that the Chicago Railroad Workers' Strike of 1877 was a significant event in American labor history that occurred in the aftermath of the Panic of 1873 and a nationwide economic depression.
During the strike, thousands of railroad workers in Chicago walked off the job to protest wage cuts and poor working conditions. The strike quickly turned violent, with clashes between strikers and police and military forces. Many buildings and trains were set on fire, and the violence continued for several days before federal troops were brought in to quell the unrest.
The strike ultimately failed to achieve its goals, and many of the striking workers were fired or blacklisted by the railroads. However, the event helped to raise awareness of the issues facing American workers and contributed to the growth of the labor movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
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According to the 1944 treaty between the United States and Mexico, the U.S. government would permit a certain amount of water from the Colorado River to flow through to Mexico and _____.are shared between the national and state governmentsthe people's participation in making the laws that govern themMexico would send an equal amount of water from the Rio Grand tributaries to Texas farmers
Answer:
According to the 1944 treaty between the United States and Mexico, the U.S. government would permit a certain amount of water from the Colorado River to flow through to Mexico and Mexico would send an equal amount of water from the Rio Grand tributaries to Texas farmers.
after world war ii, which countries were given the power to draw new national borders in the middle east?
After World War II, Great Britain and France were the countries empowered to draw new borders in the Middle East.
Britain and France implemented the Sykes-Picot Agreement in 1919, dividing the Arab world into nation-states. The League of Nations recognized these borders and gave French and British "mandates" to govern these states until independence was ready.
During World War I, Mark Sykes, an Englishman, and François Picot, a Frenchman, demarcated the borders of the Middle East. Two diplomats pencil divide this map of one of the world's most dangerous regions into countries that transcend ethnic and religious boundaries.
After World War II, Britain and France were the countries empowered to design new borders in the Middle East.
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what was one objection of the ayatollahs to the rule of the shah of iran? question 13 options: reduced influence of religion on the government insufficient acceptance of all people redistribution of wealth across the population women did not have enough opportunities
The Iranian shah's regime was criticized by the ayatollahs in part because of the reduced influence of religion on the administration. After years of opposition to Shah Pahlavi, Ayatollah Khomeini became the supreme religious authority of the Islamic Republic of Iran in 1979.
What was one thing the ayatollahs had against the Iranian Shah's rule?
Khomeini worked to remove the Shah from power due to his ties to the West after being appointed as the Ayatollah. Ayatollah Khomeini was named Iran's permanent religious and political leader after the revolution was successful.
The founder of the Islamic republic that was created in 1979 and its first leader (rahbar), Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, were both Iranians. He explained the idea of "guardianship of the jurist" (velyat-e faqh), the historical foundation for Iran's Islamic republic. Khomeini was a staunch advocate for the globalization of Islam. Khomeini declared: "We shall export our revolution to the whole globe" in one of his addresses. There will be conflict up till the scream "There is no god but Allah" is heard throughout the earth.
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did the location and size of Auschwitz contribute to the deadliness during the war?
oh yes for sure, at the time, poland had the one of the highest jewish population. not only that but the auschwtiz was located in a very remote area which meant that it was to easy for the germans to keep it a secret
Question 2: What is the attitude expressed by General DeWitt towards Japanese-Americans and what is his opinion of Japanese internment?
Answer:
Explanation:
General John DeWitt was the Commander of the Western Defense Command during World War II, and he was responsible for the internment of Japanese Americans. DeWitt's attitude towards Japanese-Americans was marked by suspicion and distrust. He believed that Japanese-Americans were a security risk and that they could not be trusted to be loyal to the United States.
DeWitt's opinion of Japanese internment was that it was a necessary security measure. He argued that the internment of Japanese-Americans was needed to prevent espionage and sabotage by Japanese agents during World War II. He claimed that there was evidence of Japanese espionage and sabotage, although most of this evidence was later found to be exaggerated or untrue.
DeWitt also argued that the internment of Japanese Americans was necessary because they could not be easily distinguished from Japanese nationals. He claimed that it was impossible to tell which Japanese-Americans were loyal to the United States and which were loyal to Japan. This argument ignored the fact that the vast majority of Japanese-Americans were loyal to the United States and had no connection to Japan.
Overall, DeWitt's attitude towards Japanese Americans was one of suspicion and distrust, and his opinion of Japanese internment was that it was a necessary security measure, despite the lack of evidence to support his claims. The internment of Japanese Americans was a dark chapter in American history, and it was a violation of their civil liberties and human rights.
new agencies and laws created by the first new deal called
A new agency and law created by the first New Deal called FERA (Federal Emergency Relief Administration).
Major federal programs and agencies include the Civil Conservation Corps (CCC) and Works Progress Administration (WPA), the Civil Works Administration (CWA), the Farm Safety Administration (FSA), the National Industrial Recovery Act of 1933 (NIRA). ), Social Security Administration (SSA).
They helped farmers, the unemployed, the young and the elderly. The New Deal included new restrictions and protections for the banking sector and efforts to revive the economy after prices plummeted. The New Deal program included both bills and executive orders passed by Congress during President Franklin D. Roosevelt's first term.
These programs focused on what historians call the "three R's."
Helping the unemployed and the poor, returning the economy to normal levels, and reforming the financial system to prevent another recession.
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by the late 1960s, critics within the civil rights movement were dissatisfied with the tactics illustrated by the excerpt. these critics were increasingly likely to argue that
By the late 1960s, critics within the civil rights movement were dissatisfied with the tactics illustrated by the excerpt. These critics were increasingly likely to argue that the civil rights movement should adopt more militant and confrontational tactics to achieve its goals.
What are the critics within the civil rights movement?Critics within the civil rights movement were dissatisfied with the tactics illustrated by the excerpt. They argued that the movement should adopt more militant and confrontational tactics to achieve its goals.
They claimed that the gradual and nonviolent strategies supported by most leaders had not been effective in achieving equality for black Americans in the United States.
These critics urged the movement to adopt more aggressive tactics such as boycotting companies that discriminated against black people, disrupting the economy, and launching protests that made their demands clear to the public and the government.
They felt that these more confrontational approaches would get the government's attention and force it to take action. These critics were significant because they played a critical role in shaping the direction of the civil rights movement in the late 1960s.
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Based on the political cartoon, who can we assume Lou Rodgers to be?
As a female cartoonist named Annie, she encountered obstacles and started submitting her work under the name "Lou Rogers." Her first known cartoons were published in Judge Magazine, a well-known national comedy publication, in 1908. Ms.
At the Massachusetts Normal Art School, which is now the Massachusetts College of Art and Design, Rogers decided to pursue an artistic career around 1900. Her vivacious nature and preference for exploring the city of Boston, according to her own account, were incompatible with these studies. After a year, she left school. After joining a business partnership with a classmate, they traversed the West giving physical culture lectures to towns. She later enrolled in physical culture workshops provided in Washington, DC. It was a financial catastrophe since they lacked commercial experience. She quickly made the decision to become a cartoonist. She left for New York City and made contact with newspaper offices there.
Rogers was a staff artist at Judge, working alongside H. G. Peter, the artist behind Wonder Woman's depiction, to routinely contribute original artwork to the suffrage page titled "The Modern Woman." By 1912, Annie Rogers was listed as a cartoonist in New York City by the Patten Academy Mirror. A year later, in "A Woman Destined to Achieve Great Things," Cartoons Magazine featured Rogers as a flourishing cartoonist. Grant Hamilton encapsulated her skills as a "master cartoonist, educator, and critic":
She possesses the ability to perceive how to incorporate the idea into the larger picture, which 99 out of 100 people do not. Also, she has 40 ideas on everything. She is currently the only female artist in the world pursuing her full artistic destiny in cartoons. She wants to triumph. And she will not stop until she succeeds.
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what was the primary purpose of the neutrality acts passed by the united states during the 1930s?
The primary purpose of the neutrality acts passed by the United States during the 1930s was to maintain neutrality and avoid involvement in conflicts between foreign nations.
The US had experienced the devastating effects of World War I and wanted to avoid being drawn into another costly war. The neutrality acts prohibited the sale of arms and ammunition to countries at war and banned American ships from transporting goods to belligerent nations. However, the effectiveness of these acts was questioned as they did not prevent the outbreak of World War II and the US eventually became involved in the conflict after the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941.
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The Pendleton Act of 1883, the first piece of federal legislation to begin breaking down the spoils system, created a bipartisan ________ commission to supervise the federal job application process.
The Pendleton Act of 1883, the first piece of federal legislation to begin breaking down the spoils system, created a bipartisan Civil Service Commission to supervise the federal job application process.
The Pendleton Act of 1883, also known as the Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act, was passed by the US Congress in response to public outcries over the patronage or "spoils" system that had long dominated federal appointments. It established the US Civil Service Commission to oversee federal appointments in the hope of ensuring that individuals who were employed in the federal government were qualified and deserving of their positions.
Bipartisan Civil Service Commission to supervise federal job application process. The act established a bipartisan Civil Service Commission to supervise the federal job application process. The Commission was made up of three commissioners, each of whom served a six-year term.
The Commission's responsibility was to oversee the implementation of the civil service system, which provided for the selection of qualified individuals for government jobs through competitive examinations, rather than through the spoils system.
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between 1840-1860, the majority of immigrants entering the united states were from what two countries?
Irish and German were the majority of immigrants entering the united states. Hundreds of thousands of Ireland and Germany residents immigrated to America in the middle of the 19th century to be an outcome of hunger and instability in politics in Europe.
Numerous thousands of individuals in Irish perished from hunger and illness during the potato-related food shortages of the the year 1840. Many Irish people made the decision to emigrate to the United States. The majority were in abject poverty and many were malnourished and ill. Since disease had decimated the crops of potatoes harvest and left hundreds of millions with no sustenance, they ought to had to leave. Better Employment Chances in America. Europeans looked for land, freedom, and chance. A lot of individuals were escaping economic and political turmoil in their home nations.
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What was one way Mayor William B. Hartsfield helped the development of Atlanta?
answer choices
o He brought several major league sports teams to the city.
o He helped implement peaceful integration of the city schools.
o He promoted the development of a commuter rail line in the city.
o He established affirmative action programs for hiring city contractors.
One way Mayor William B. Hartsfield helped the development of Atlanta was by promoting the growth of the city's transportation infrastructure.
He oversaw the construction of the Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport, which would go on to become one of the busiest airports in the world. He also supported the development of a commuter rail line in the city, known as the Metropolitan Atlanta Rapid Transit Authority (MARTA), which opened in 1979.
Mayor Hartsfield was also known for his efforts to promote racial infrastructure harmony in the city. He famously worked with civil rights leaders to implement peaceful integration of the city's schools in the 1950s, which helped to prevent the kind of violence that had erupted in other southern cities.
While he did not bring major league sports teams to Atlanta, he did support the city's minor league baseball team, the Atlanta Crackers, and helped to secure a new stadium for the team in 1948.
Mayor Hartsfield also established affirmative action programs for hiring city contractors, which helped to ensure that minority-owned businesses had a fair chance to compete for city contracts.
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why were the ancient egyptians buried with their prized possessions?
Egyptians frequently got buried with their most priceless or valued possessions, such as their dogs, money, or antiquities, as they believed that the hereafter will be better than their earthly life.
What kind of people were the ancient Egyptians?Located in the Nile Valley, ancient Egypt was a civilization in northeastern Africa. Prehistoric Egypt was followed by the ancient Egyptian civilization, which came to fruition circa 3100 BC with the governmental union of Upper and Lower Egypt under Menes. According to the study, which was published in Nature Communications, the Neolithic and Bronze Age populations from the Near East, Anatolia, and Eastern Mediterranean Europeans were the closest genetic relatives of the preserved remains discovered in Abusir-el Meleq, Middle Egypt. With population growth brought on by natural fertility, the majority of Egyptians were likely descended from people who settled in the Nile valley in prehistoric times. There have been immigration from the Middle East, Libya, and especially Nubia at various times.To learn more about ancient egyptians, refer to:
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Causes of the formation of joint stock companies
Answer:
Joint-stock companies were formed in Europe in the early seventeenth century as a means to limit the many risks and costs associated with certain types of business. In a joint-stock company, individuals were able to purchase portions of the company in the form of shares, thus making the new shareholders partial owners and investors in the company.
Explanation:
how did the u.s. government mobilize the economy for war?
Answer:The US government mobilized the economy for war by making loans available to factories that wished to convert to wartime production, creating cost-plus contracts, coming to no-strike agreements with labor organizations, and calling for public support in the forms of rationing, scrap collection, and bond purchasing.
Explanation:
how do the similarities and differences between booker t. washington and w.e.b. dubois capture major currents in african american thought during the progressive era?
In a nutshell, Washington advocated for a modest approach that prioritized industrial education, economic self-reliance, and racial harmony, while DuBois pushed for a more aggressive approach that pursued total equality of Blacks in all aspects of life. As such, the similarities and differences between the two men capture major currents in African American thought during the Progressive Era.
The Progressive Era was an age of unparalleled social and political change that saw numerous political and intellectual currents at play, particularly in African American thought. Among the two major ideological trends were the ideas of Booker T. Washington and W.E.B. DuBois.What were the similarities and differences between Washington and DuBois?Booker T. Washington was the most widely recognized African American leader of his time. Washington urged Blacks to embrace industrial education, economic self-reliance, and racial harmony in order to attain respect and equality in the United States. On the other hand, W.E.B. DuBois advocated for the complete equality of Blacks in all aspects of life, including civil rights, education, and politics. According to him, it was crucial to pursue higher education and to join forces to fight the scourge of racism.In a nutshell, Washington advocated for a modest approach that prioritized industrial education, economic self-reliance, and racial harmony, while DuBois pushed for a more aggressive approach that pursued total equality of Blacks in all aspects of life. As such, the similarities and differences between the two men capture major currents in African American thought during the Progressive Era.
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What were pages and squires?
Answer:
please make me brainalist and keep smiling dude I hope you will
Explanation:
The most common definition of squire refers to the Middle Ages. A squire was typically a young boy, training to become a knight. A boy became a page at the age of 7 then a squire at age 14. Squires were the second step to becoming a knight, after having served as a page.
Answer:
What were pages and squires?
Explanation:
Pages and squires were two different ranks of young men who were trained for knighthood in medieval Europe.
Pages were usually the youngest members of a noble household, typically boys between the ages of seven and fourteen. They were responsible for performing various duties around the household, such as running errands, serving food, and caring for the horses. They were also trained in the basics of courtly etiquette, chivalry, and martial arts.
Squires were older than pages, typically between the ages of fourteen and twenty-one. They were assigned to a knight as his personal assistant, and they performed various duties for their knight, such as caring for his armor and weapons, accompanying him into battle, and learning from him the skills needed to become a knight themselves. Squires were also trained in the finer points of chivalry, including music, dancing, and courtly love.
Both pages and squires were considered part of the knightly class, and their training was a crucial part of the process of becoming a knight.
italy was composed of five relatively wealthy states during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. true false
Italy was composed of five relatively wealthy states during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries is a FALSE statement.The statement is false because it does not specify the five relatively wealthy states in Italy during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. Italy was not composed of five states during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries but consisted of several city-states that ruled themselves.
City-states were sovereign states that were created by the towns and cities of Italy. They controlled their own territories, and they were made up of people who shared a common language, history, and culture.The Italian city-states were made up of several relatively wealthy states during the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. They competed with one another in trade and culture, and they were often at war. Some of the most prominent city-states were Venice, Florence, Milan, Naples, Rome, and Genoa.The city-states' wealth came from the trade they had with other European countries. The city-states were major producers of textiles, jewelry, and other luxury goods. They traded with other countries and became rich. In addition to trade, the city-states also had a thriving artistic and intellectual culture. The city-states were home to some of the greatest artists and thinkers of the Renaissance, including Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo.
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1. Why did the Chicano Movement and the L.A. Walkouts begin?
2. How did the L.A. Walkouts and the Chicano Movement change things for Latino American students?
Unfairness in the local public school system was the root of the East Los Angeles walkouts. The majority of Chicanos lived in East Los Angeles. The majority of students in the local schools—roughly 130,000 Latino kids—were of this group.
The origin of the Chicano walkouts.The East Los Angeles Walkouts were a rallying cry for the city's Latino kids to demand their civil rights and the right to an education. The demonstration is still one of the biggest student protests in American history, despite the Board of Education's rejection.
What alterations did the Chicano Movement and the L.A. Walkouts make for Latino American students?The school system at the time paid little attention to Mexican American history, and Chicano students were frequently encouraged to pursue practical vocations rather than higher education while also being barred from speaking Spanish. Improvements in city schools were made as a result of the walkouts, which brought systematic injustices to light.
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what type of text did egyptian book of the dead contain?
The Egyptian Book of the Dead contained religious texts and instructions for the soul’s journey after death.
The Egyptian Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian text that contains various magic spells, hymns, and prayers designed to assist the deceased on their journey into the afterlife. These texts were primarily inscribed on papyrus rolls and then placed in the tombs of the dead.
The Egyptian Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text that is believed to have been composed around 1550 BCE. The Book of the Dead is also known as The Book of Coming Forth by Day or The Spells of Going Forth by Day. This book is a collection of texts that were used to guide the deceased through the trials and obstacles of the afterlife.
The text comprises several chapters, each of which focuses on a particular aspect of the afterlife. These chapters contain hymns, prayers, and spells designed to help the deceased overcome the obstacles they encounter in the afterlife. For example, one chapter focuses on the deceased's journey through the underworld, while another deals with their judgment before the gods.
The Book of the Dead was an incredibly important text in ancient Egyptian culture. The ancient Egyptians believed that the afterlife was a dangerous place filled with countless dangers and obstacles that the deceased needed to overcome. By providing guidance and magical spells, the Book of the Dead was seen as a way to ensure that the deceased had the best possible chance of navigating the afterlife safely and successfully.The book was so important that it was often placed in the tombs of the dead to assist them on their journey.
These papyrus rolls would often contain beautifully illustrated scenes of the afterlife, as well as the spells and prayers themselves. Today, the Book of the Dead is one of the most well-known and studied ancient Egyptian texts in existence.
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most – works of the classical era follow a scheme of tempos and formal ideas known as the – cycle.
Answer: instrumental, multimovement
Explanation:
Traveling by foot, about how many miles was it from Bucktown to Philadelphia? From Philadelphia to St. Catherines in Canada
On foot, it takes 226 miles to get from Bucktown to Philadelphia and 306 miles to get from Philadelphia to St. Catherines, Canada. Hence, the total mileage (in miles) travelled on this trip from Bucktown to Philadelphia and from Philadelphia to St. Catharine is total (226 + 306) miles, which equals 532 miles.
In Chester County, Pennsylvania, United States, South Coventry Township contains the historic, unincorporated settlement of Bucktown. The Owen J. Roberts School District's main campus, which houses the Owen J. Roberts Middle School and the Owen J. Roberts High School, is situated at the junction of Routes 23 and 100.
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5. How do you think most Cherokee reacted upon getting this message?
Under the direction of Principal Chief John Ross, the Cherokee Nation resisted the Indian Removal Act despite Georgia's violations of its sovereignty and attacks on Cherokee citizens.
The Native Removal Act is what?President Andrew Jackson signed the Indian Removal Act into law, giving him the power to trade Native territories inside current state boundaries for uninhabited territory west of the Mississippi. While a few tribes peacefully dispersed, many were against the practice of expulsion.
The act stipulates that "for a barter of lands with the Indians resident in any of the states and territories, and for their removal west of the river Mississippi," the description provided by Congress. In order to receive additional lands, more than 60,000 Native Americans from at least 18 tribes were compelled to relocate west of the Mississippi River.
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An example of an "expressed power" given to the national government in the constitution is
Answer: Power to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states.
Explanation:
One example of an "expressed power" given to the national government in the constitution is the power to regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states (Article I, Section 8, Clause 3). This power has been interpreted by the Supreme Court to give Congress broad authority to regulate economic activity, including the power to regulate interstate commerce, the power to tax and spend for the general welfare, and the power to regulate foreign trade. This expressed power has played a significant role in shaping the economic and political landscape of the United States.
Answer:
Expressed powers, also known as the "enumerated powers," include the power to coin money, regulate foreign and interstate commerce, declare war, grant patents and copyrights and more.
Explanation: I really hope this helps!! Mark me brainliest!!
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Henrich Schliemann was an archaeological who discovered ancient Troy
Answer:
Yes, that is correct.
Explanation:
Heinrich Schliemann was a German businessman and archaeologist who is famous for discovering the ancient city of Troy. In the 1870s, Schliemann excavated the site of Hisarlik in modern-day Turkey, which he believed to be the location of the ancient city of Troy mentioned in Homer's epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. Schliemann's excavations revealed several layers of settlements and artifacts, which he believed to be evidence of the ancient city. While his methods were controversial, Schliemann's discovery of Troy was a major archaeological breakthrough and helped to shape our understanding of ancient civilizations.
LESSON 2 REVIEW
Time and Place
1. UNDERSTANDING CONTEXT What were the particular challenges
that the United States faced in fighting the war in the Pacific?
Building History-Social Science
Analysis Skills
The United States faced several challenges in fighting the war in the Pacific during World War II. The vast distances involved in the Pacific theater made it difficult to transport troops, supplies, and equipment, and the harsh environmental conditions of the Pacific islands further complicated logistics.
What were other challenges?
The Japanese forces were also skilled in jungle warfare and used guerrilla tactics, making it challenging for the US to advance on the ground.
Additionally, the Japanese had strong defensive positions, such as on the islands of Iwo Jima and Okinawa, and were willing to fight to the death rather than surrender. The use of kamikaze attacks by the Japanese also posed a significant threat to US naval forces. Overall, the challenges faced by the United States in the Pacific required innovative strategies and perseverance to achieve victory.
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what was the long-term significance of the new deal? (iow, why was it important, and what impact has it had - and does it continue to have - upon the united states socially, politically, and/or economically?)
The New Deal was a set of social and economic policies implemented by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in response to the Great Depression. Its long-term significance lies in its impact on American society, politics, and economics.
The New Deal helped establish the welfare state and ushered in a new era of government intervention in the economy.The New Deal led to the creation of new government agencies such as the Social Security Administration, which provided a safety net for the elderly and disabled. The National Labor Relations Board gave workers the right to organize and bargain collectively, while the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation guaranteed bank deposits up to $5,000.
The Civilian Conservation Corps provided jobs for young men while also conserving natural resources.According to historians, the New Deal fundamentally changed the relationship between the government and its citizens. Prior to the New Deal, the government had a limited role in the economy, and there was little social welfare legislation.
After the New Deal, the government became more involved in the economy, and social welfare legislation became more common. Today, the New Deal's legacy can still be seen in programs like Social Security and Medicare, which provide a safety net for millions of Americans.
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How did Little Rock 9 impact society?
Answer:
Explanation:
The Little Rock Nine were a group of nine black students who enrolled at formerly all-white Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas, in September 1957.
How did the Little Rock Nine influence the Civil Rights Movement?The Little Rock Nine (were 9 black high school students selected to be the first black high school students at the segregated white high school in Little Rock Arkansas. Their arrival at the school initiated a historical conflict among local, state, and Federal jurisdiction and enforcement units known as the Little Rock Crisis.
The events, positions, and historical consequences are all quite significant. In some ways, these nine students going to high school was a harbinger for, and an initial point of, the civil rights movement.
In 1954, the US Supreme Court, in Brown vs. The Board of Education, determined that segregation of schools violated the 14th amendment and must end.The NAACP reviewed and managed desegregation plans, including in Arkansas.The Little Rock Board of Education first expressed a willingness to comply, then agreed to comply with minimal requirements, then resisted further, going out of compliance with Federal law and regulation. Their motives were probably mixed - some racism, and some need to face the fact that, if desegregation were enforced, violence would break out.The City of Little Rock favored desegregation.The Governor of Arkansas, Orval Faubus, opposed and resisted Segregation.The President of the United States, Dwight D. Eisenhower, enforced the Supreme Court ruling.Initially, the National Guard of the State of Arkansas was under the control of Governor Faubus, with orders to maintain order and prevent the black youths from attending the school.There were various tactics used over the course of about two years, including the closing of all public schools to prevent desegregation. When the opening of private schools was blocked, racist attacks against blacks occurred.
The nine children were told that they had been selected as black children most likely to be accepted, but that they would face harassment and assault, and they should not respond with violence. They did so.
The military could get them inside the school, but could not protect them once they were inside. Their fellow students spat on them, cursed them, and physically assaulted them. One young woman had acid thrown in her eyes. Another one faced attempted murder, as other girls tried to burn her alive. And the attacks were not just from youth. One harassed student dropped her lunch tray, and was suspended for dropping the tray. So the persecution was from adults and official bodies within the school, as well.
A crucial element that made the event historical was when President Eisenhower ordered the 101st Army Airborne Division to take over the State National Guard and escort the students into the school while maintaining order. At the same time, the President federalized the Arkansas state National Guard, so that it was no longer under the command of Governor Faubus. As a result, the same soldiers who, obeying the governor’s orders, had prevented the students from entering the school now escorted them in.
The use of US armed forces on American soil is a constitutional issue. So is a state government resisting an order of the Supreme Court. Fortunately, there was no armed rebellion, and individual and mob violence was largely kept under control.
Some of the nine students have written about their experience, and seven of them reunited on the Oprah Winfrey show in 1996. Some of the white students who had persecuted them were on the show, as well.
This incident was a less famous precursor to The Stand in the Schoolhouse Door (Stand in the Schoolhouse Door) in 1963, where Alabama Governor Wallace showed up to prevent two black students from starting at the University of Alabama, violating a court order in doing so. The later event is more famous for several reasons: The governor showed up in person; Television was more prevalent and TV media were present; Kennedy was President, and federalized the Alabama National Guard, following in President Eisenhower’s footsteps, but Kennedy’s civil rights actions were more in the public eye, and the event was immortalized in Bob Dylan’s song The Times, They Are A’Changin’.