1.What is the importance of inoculating a control plate in this experiment? 2. Bacillus has a high thermal death point and a long thermal death time. a. Does this correspond with your results? b. What could be a possible explanation if not? c. Why is Bocillus not classified as a thermophile? 3. List four diseases caused by spore forming bacteria.

Line graphs show the change of a dependent variable (i.e. animal's weight) over time. 1) Graph in the attached files. 2) the new food does not boost the cows' growth rate.

Line graphs are representations of how the recorded data changes through time or distance. These graphs are used to show events that change in a continuous interval or time-lapse. They allow analyzing how these changes occur.

This representation is set in a cartesian graph, placing one of the variables on the horizontal axis and the other variable on the vertical axis. Usually, time or distance (the continuous variable) is placed on the X-axis, while the associated dependent variable is placed on the Y-axis.

Dots are drawn in the intersection between the two variables, and a continuous line is drawn joining these dots to show the change of values between time (or distance) intervals.

In the exposed example,    

1) You will find the graph in the attached files

2) Even when a slight difference between Bessie and Berta's weights was observed during June, July, and August, both of their weights were the same at the end of the experiment.

These results suggest that the new food does not really boost the growth rate of cows, otherwise Bessie, who received the food, would have reached 400 Isb earlier than Berta. If this was the case, by August, Bessie would weigh more than Berta.

In conclusion, according to the animals weight at the begining and at the end of the experiment, the new food does not boost the cows' growth rate.

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Based on the information provided, the volcanic bomb was deposited:

After the layers to the left and right of the clast were deposited (i.e., it is younger than these layers).

Before the uppermost layers were in their present location (i.e., it is older than these layers).

Volcanic eruptions are natural phenomena in which molten rock, ash, and gas escape from a volcanic vent or opening on the Earth's surface. They are typically caused by the buildup of pressure within a magma chamber below the Earth's surface, which can be triggered by a variety of factors, including tectonic activity, changes in the composition of the magma, or the release of gases from the magma. When the pressure becomes too great, the magma is forced up through the vent, resulting in an eruption.

Volcanic eruptions can take many forms, ranging from relatively gentle and slow-moving effusive eruptions, which release lava and gas over an extended period of time, to explosive eruptions, which can eject large quantities of ash, rock, and gas into the atmosphere in a matter of minutes or hours. The nature of an eruption depends on factors such as the type of magma involved, the size and shape of the volcanic vent, and the surrounding topography.

In the given question, the volcanic bomb was likely deposited after the surrounding layers were already consolidated and in place, but before the uppermost layers were deposited or moved to their current location. The fact that some sediment layers were deformed ductility by the deposition of the volcanic bomb suggests that it was still semi-molten or at least very hot when it landed.

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Meiosis and mitosis are both forms of cell division. However, the outcomes of these processes differ. Meiosis produces genetic variation.

Homologous chromosomes move randomly to opposite poles of the cell during metaphase of meiosis I. Random fertilization of gametes leads to offspring with various combinations of genetic traits. Synapsis and crossing over occur during prophase I of meiosis, resulting in the formation of new gene combinations. During metaphase of meiosis I, homologous pairs line up randomly along the metaphase plate. During the production of gametes in a diploid organism, meiosis takes place. Meiosis leads to genetic variability in the offspring. Each gamete contains only one set of chromosomes, which results in haploid cells. During meiosis, homologous chromosomes exchange genetic material, allowing for the creation of novel combinations of genes. Thus, meiosis typically results in genetic variation.

however , Mitosis does not typically produce genetic variation since the parent cell and the resulting daughter cells contain the same number of chromosomes and have the same genetic makeup. Mitosis results in genetically identical daughter cells. Hence, mitosis doesn't lead to genetic variation.

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The common, painless eye condition associated with aging that causes the central portion of the retina to deteriorate and function inadequately is called age-related macular degeneration (AMD).

The retina is a layer of tissue at the back of the eye that is responsible for detecting light and sending visual information to the brain. The macula is the central portion of the retina, which is responsible for providing sharp, detailed vision required for reading, driving, and recognizing faces.

In AMD, the macula slowly deteriorates over time, leading to a loss of central vision. This condition can affect one or both eyes and can progress gradually, causing a decrease in the ability to see fine details and colors, distortion of straight lines, and blind spots in the central field of vision. While there is no cure for AMD, early detection and treatment can help slow its progression and preserve vision.

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Regulatory elements from a human protein to the coding region of a protein produced in goat's milk. The correct answer is D.

This process involves combining the regulatory elements from a human protein with the coding region of a protein that is produced in goat's milk. The combination of these elements results in a new gene which can be expressed in goat's milk.

To produce a human gene in goat's milk, you would fuse the coding region of a human gene to the coding region of a goat gene. Gene expression is the process by which genetic instructions are transformed into a functional gene product such as a protein. The gene expression process, which includes transcription and translation, enables an organism to produce the necessary protein required for life. To produce a human gene in goat's milk, a human gene coding region must be fused with the coding region of a goat gene.

Therefore, The correct answer is D. regulatory elements from a human protein to the coding region of a protein produced in goat's milk.

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In your experiments with a star changer, you must have observed the relative brightness which is: directly related to the diameter of the lens.

The diameter of the lens, in turn, is directly proportional to the intensity of light that the lens captures. The relative brightness is also related to the surface area of the lens. The surface area, as we know, increases with the square of the diameter of the lens.

Therefore, if the diameter of the lens is doubled, the surface area will increase fourfold, making the image brighter. As a result, we can say that the brightness of the image observed in a star changer is directly proportional to the diameter of the lens, which is dependent on the surface area of the lens.

A bigger lens will be able to capture more light, resulting in a brighter image. Another way to increase the brightness of the image is to use a lens with a lower focal length. As the focal length of the lens is decreased, the image is magnified more, making it appear brighter.

However, this method comes with a downside. As the focal length decreases, the image's clarity decreases as well. Therefore, a balance between the diameter of the lens and the focal length must be maintained to get a bright and clear image of the star.

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The botanist, Dr. Flowers, would expect to see C6H12O6 and O2 as the end products of photosynthesis in the plants on Planet X. The correct option is (d).

Dr. Flowers, a botanist, is measuring the photosynthesis of local plants on Planet X. Her hypothesis is that the end products of photosynthesis in Planet X's plants will be the same as those of Earth's plants.

If Dr. Flowers' hypothesis is correct,  C6H12O6 and O2, would be anticipated from the plants on Planet X if Dr. Flowers' hypothesis that the end products of photosynthesis in Planet X's plants will be the same as those of Earth's plants is correct.

The primary output of photosynthesis is glucose or sugar (C6H12O6) and oxygen (O2). 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light energy → C6H12O6 + 6 O2. This equation of photosynthesis shows that carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) are used in photosynthesis, whereas oxygen (O2) and glucose (C6H12O6) are released as products.

Therefore, Dr. Flowers' hypothesis is that Planet X's plants, like Earth's plants, will produce glucose and oxygen as photosynthesis end products. Hence, option D is correct.

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The technique developed by communication scholars to remind us that our evaluations apply only to specific times and circumstances is known as indexing. Thus, the correct option is A.

Indexing is a communication technique developed by communication scholars to remind us that our evaluations apply only to specific times and circumstances.

Indexing is a cognitive process that acknowledges that an evaluation made at one time may not be accurate at another time or in another context. Indexing recognizes the fact that attitudes are situational and that evaluations are bound to specific times, places, and situations.

Therefore, the correct option is A.

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The answer is C - Thermophilic enzymes are stable in part because they contain relatively low amounts of the amino acid glycine. Thermophilic enzymes are able to survive and remain active at high temperatures due to the low amounts of glycine they contain, which gives them increased stability and allows them to remain functional.

Enzymes- Enzymes are protein-based substances produced by living organisms. The metabolism of living things requires enzymes to function correctly.  Enzymes can speed up chemical reactions by reducing the activation energy of the reaction, enabling it to proceed at a much faster rate.

Amino acids- Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. They are organic compounds that are both basic and acidic. There are 20 common amino acids that are found in proteins. They all have an amino group (-NH2) and a carboxyl group (-COOH) that combine to form an α-amino acid.

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All of the electrons in the Magnesium [tex](Mg)[/tex] atom are paired up, which makes it diamagnetic.

There are no unpaired electrons in the orbitals of diamagnetic materials because all of their electrons are paired up in these orbitals. A diamagnetic substance will weakly repel a magnetic field when it is exposed to it because the field will weakly repel all of the electrons in the substance.

The opposite is true for paramagnetic materials, which are only weakly attracted to magnetic fields because they have unpaired electrons.

Magnesium has 12 electrons in its ground state, and its electron configuration is [tex]1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2[/tex]. The Mg atom is diamagnetic because all of its electrons are coupled.

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The muscles that extend from the pubis and ischium anteriorly to the sacrum and coccyx posteriorly are known as the muscles of the pelvic floor. The correct option is C.

These muscles are responsible for the control of the evacuation of waste materials from the digestive and urinary systems.

In addition to helping control waste elimination, the muscles of the pelvic floor are also responsible for supporting the organs within the pelvis, including the bladder and uterus.

They also play a role in sexual function and pleasure. Dysfunction of the pelvic floor muscles can lead to a variety of issues, including urinary and faecal incontinence, pelvic organ prolapse, and sexual dysfunction.

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The best statement that describes nucleotide excision is that a region of double-stranded DNA containing bulky damaged nucleotides is removed and replaced with new DNA.

What is nucleotide excision? Nucleotide excision is one of the many mechanisms by which cells repair DNA. It is a type of repair mechanism that corrects DNA damage caused by chemicals, radiation, and other environmental factors. A region of double-stranded DNA containing bulky damaged nucleotides is removed and replaced with new DNA.

Nucleotide excision repair is the process of repairing damaged DNA by removing a damaged region of the DNA and filling in the gap with newly synthesized DNA. During this process, proteins detect the damaged section of DNA and remove a small section of the strand containing the damage.

The new DNA is synthesized using the other undamaged strand as a template.

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High ATP yield; most from oxidative phosphorylation: This characteristic is specific to respiration. In respiration, the electron transport chain is involved in the generation of ATP, and most of the ATP is produced through oxidative phosphorylation.

Most carbon released as CO2: This characteristic is specific to respiration. During respiration, the carbon from the organic molecules is completely oxidized, and most of it is released as CO2.

Electrons reduce an external electron acceptor (e.g., O2): This characteristic is specific to respiration. In respiration, oxygen or other external electron acceptors act as the final electron acceptors, and electrons are transferred to them during the electron transport chain.

Low ATP yield; primarily from glycolysis: This characteristic is specific to fermentation. In fermentation, ATP is primarily produced through glycolysis, which has a low ATP yield.

Electrons from catabolism end up back on partially oxidized substrate: This characteristic is specific to fermentation. In fermentation, the electrons from the catabolism of organic molecules end up back on partially oxidized substrates such as pyruvate or acetaldehyde.

Most carbon remains in organic form: This characteristic is specific to fermentation. In fermentation, most of the carbon from the organic molecules remains in organic form, and only a small amount is released as CO2.

Important for catabolism of sugars: This characteristic applies to both respiration and fermentation. Both processes are important for the catabolism of sugars, which involves the breakdown of complex organic molecules to release energy.

NADH major electron carrier: This characteristic applies to both respiration and fermentation. In both processes, NADH is an important electron carrier, which plays a crucial role in transferring electrons during the breakdown of organic molecules.

Pyruvate is major intermediate: This characteristic applies to both respiration and fermentation. In both processes, pyruvate is a major intermediate, which is produced during glycolysis and serves as a precursor for further metabolic pathways.

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The case of Chytridiomycosis above would be an example of natural selection.

Natural selection is the process in which organisms with desirable traits have a greater likelihood of surviving and reproducing, thus increasing the frequency of these traits in the population over time. In this case, the individuals that are resistant to the chytridiomycosis fungus have a greater chance of surviving and thus pass on their genes to the next generation, increasing the frequency of the resistant trait.

Here’s a detailed explanation of the principles behind natural selection.

Your question seems to be formatted wrong/ The correct one should be as follows:

Chytridiomycosis is a fungal disease first identified in 1998 as a cause of massive amphibian deaths. in some severely impacted populations, a few individuals have survived, perhaps because of some natural resistance. if these resistant individuals continue to survive and prosper, new resistant populations might emerge. this would be an example of:

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The evidence from these Drosophila experiments that the genes for wing shape and bristles are inherited independently of each other is genes for wing shape and bristles are inherited independently of each other.

Since the two genes were on sepаrаte chromosomes, they were аble to do so. Thus, the frequency of аppeаrаnce of these two trаits hаs no relаtionship. They were inherited independently, with no correlаtion or linkаge in the genetic inheritаnce of wing shаpe аnd bristles.

The inheritаnce of а gene is аccomplished by the chromosome it is on. Different trаits cаn be inherited independently of one аnother if they аre locаted on different chromosomes. If two genes аre found on the sаme chromosome, they аre more likely to be inherited together. Genes thаt аre locаted neаr one аnother on the sаme chromosome аre sаid to be linked.

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The following pulmonary volumes and capacities would change if you collected the data after vigorous exercise:

VT: increased IRV: decreased ERV: decreased RV: decreased TLC: unchanged

Explanation: During vigorous exercise, the body’s oxygen demand increases, and as a result, the lungs increase their activity. As a result, the amount of air that is inhaled (VT) increases, as more air is needed to provide oxygen to the muscles.

However, the other pulmonary volumes would decrease after vigorous exercise. The inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) would decrease because, during vigorous exercise, the lungs may not have enough time to fill up to their maximum capacity. As a result, the amount of air that can be inhaled after a normal inspiration would be reduced.

The expiratory reserve volume (ERV) would also decrease because, during vigorous exercise, the body needs to eliminate carbon dioxide, which results in a greater amount of air being exhaled.

The residual volume (RV) would also decrease after vigorous exercise because the lungs are working more efficiently, which results in more air being exchanged in and out of the lungs.

Finally, the total lung capacity (TLC) would remain the same because the amount of air that is inhaled (VT) increases by the same amount that the other volumes decrease.

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Enzymes separate the glycerol and fatty acids of fats in food molecules; then glycerol is converted to pyruvate, which is able to enter aerobic respiration.

Enzymes are proteins that catalyze chemical reactions. They are critical in assisting cells in converting one molecule to another. As a result, they help cells carry out their fundamental functions.

Fats are the most energy-rich molecules in our bodies, and they are created by joining glycerol and fatty acids. The glycerol is subsequently converted to pyruvate through glycolysis, which is a process that occurs in the cytoplasm of cells. This can be further converted to acetyl CoA through a sequence of steps. Acetyl CoA is used in the Krebs cycle, which is a critical stage of aerobic respiration.

In the process of glycolysis, enzymes convert one molecule of glucose into two molecules of pyruvate, producing a net of two ATPs. This process is divided into two parts, an energy-consuming phase and an energy-releasing phase. The first part is a chemical change that activates glucose by adding two phosphates to it.

Glucose is then divided into two three-carbon molecules through the energy-releasing phase. The final stage of glycolysis generates four ATP molecules, although two ATPs are used up in the initial phase. The net output is therefore two ATPs.

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In the Star Wars universe, mandalorians are a fictional culture of warriors who wear distinctive helmets as a part of their code of honor and identity.

According to the Mandalorian Creed, "This is the way," they are not supposed to remove their helmets in front of anyone, as it is a sign of vulnerability and an act of disrespect to their traditions. However, there have been instances where Mandalorians have removed their helmets in front of their spouse or significant other, as they consider them to be a part of their family and clan. So, while it goes against the traditional code, it is not entirely impossible for a Mandalorian to remove their helmet in front of their spouse.

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The data about nitrogenous base content of dna from various species. these statements are supported by the data are 1. The amount of adenine is equivalent to the amount of thymine, 2.The amount of guanine is equivalent to the amount of cytosine, and 3. The amount of purines is equivalent to the amount of pyrimidines

The nitrogenous base content of DNA varies from species to species.The composition of the nitrogenous bases in DNA from species to species can vary significantly. It was noticed that the amount of adenine is equivalent to the amount of thymine and the amount of guanine is equivalent to the amount of cytosine. This is referred to as Chargaff's rule.

The base pairs of DNA, adenine, and thymine (AT) have two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine (CG) have three hydrogen bonds. This is significant because the proportion of AT and GC base pairs can have a major impact on the stability of the DNA double helix. Finally, it was discovered that the amount of purines is equivalent to the amount of pyrimidines. The analize data about nitrogenous base content of dna from various species. these statements are supported by the data are 1. The amount of adenine is equivalent to the amount of thymine, 2.The amount of guanine is equivalent to the amount of cytosine, and 3. The amount of purines is equivalent to the amount of pyrimidines

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Answer:

A control variable in a science experiment is a variable that is kept constant or unchanged throughout the experiment. The purpose of a control variable is to provide a basis for comparison with the other variables in the experiment, which are being tested or manipulated. By keeping the control variable constant, scientists can isolate the effects of the other variables on the outcome of the experiment.

For example, in a study investigating the effect of different fertilizers on plant growth, the type of soil, amount of water, and amount of sunlight might be controlled variables. These variables are kept constant across all experimental groups to ensure that any differences in plant growth are due to the differences in fertilizer types being tested.

A well-designed experiment will typically have one or more control variables to ensure the validity and reliability of the results.

Explanation:

In prokaryotic transcription, the holoenzyme RNA polymerase is formed by the association of the core RNA polymerase enzyme with a sigma factor protein.

The core enzyme is composed of five subunits: two alpha subunits, one beta subunit, one beta prime subunit, and one omega subunit. The sigma factor is an additional protein that temporarily associates with the core enzyme to form the holoenzyme, which is capable of recognizing and binding to promoter regions of DNA.

The sigma factor helps the holoenzyme recognize and bind to specific promoter sequences on the DNA template strand, marking the start site of transcription. Once transcription begins, the sigma factor is released from the holoenzyme, and the core RNA polymerase continues to synthesize RNA until it reaches the end of the gene or reaches a termination signal.

The sigma factor is then free to associate with another core enzyme and initiate the transcription of a different gene. The process of holoenzyme formation is critical for the accurate initiation of transcription in prokaryotes.

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Based on DNA evidence showing the presence of mitochondrial genes, microsporidia have been moved to the fungal kingdom from the Protist kingdom. Thus, the correct option is C.

Microsporidia are a group of unicellular parasites that are classified as fungi. They are found in a variety of environments, including freshwater and soil. These parasitic fungi infect a wide range of animals, including insects, crustaceans, and mammals such as humans.

Microsporidia are spore-forming parasites that reproduce within host cells' cytoplasm. They have a unique organelle called the polar tube, which they use to infect host cells. The classification of microsporidia was formerly uncertain. They were believed to be members of the protist kingdom because they were unicellular and had unique characteristics that differentiated them from other eukaryotes.

However, based on DNA evidence showing the presence of mitochondrial genes, they were moved to the fungal kingdom.

Therefore, the correct option is C.

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The steps that would be used in a laboratory to engineer a bacterium that could express the human gene coding for insulin are:

1. Generate cDNA of the insulin gene using reverse transcriptase.

2. Insert the insulin cDNA into a bacterial vector near a promoter site.

3. Transform the vector into an E. coli bacterium.

4. Isolate the mRNA of the insulin gene.

The method for genetically engineering a bacterium to express the human gene coding for insulin

 Generation of insulin gene CDNA.

The first step in genetically engineering a bacterium to express the human gene coding for insulin is to generate a cDNA of the insulin gene using reverse transcriptase.

Insulin cDNA InsertionThe next step involves inserting the insulin cDNA into a bacterial vector near a promoter site. This is necessary to ensure that the bacterium can produce the insulin gene.

Transformation of Bacterial VectorThe third step involves transforming the vector into an E. coli bacterium. This process involves the use of special enzymes to insert the DNA into the bacterial cell.

Isolation of mRNAFinally, the last step involves isolating the mRNA of the insulin gene. This process is necessary to ensure that the gene is properly expressed and that the bacterium can produce insulin in significant amounts.

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If no new mutations occur, the most reasonable plates to expect bacterial growth on are 1 and 2 only.

This is because the bacteria in tubes 1 and 2 have been exposed to the recombinant plasmid containing the gene for ampicillin resistance and the functional copy of the affected gene of the lac operon. Therefore, the bacteria in these tubes will be able to grow on glucose medium with ampicillin and lactose medium. The bacteria in tubes 3 and 4 have not been exposed to the recombinant plasmid and therefore, they will not be able to grow on glucose medium with ampicillin and lactose medium.

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The description matches that of the Phylum Arthropoda, which includes a diverse group of invertebrate animals that are cold-blooded and have a hard exoskeleton, segmented bodies, and jointed appendages.

Arthropods are the most diverse group of animals on Earth, with over a million described species.One of the most prominent classes of Arthropoda is the Class Insecta, which includes animals such as ants, butterflies, and bees. Insects have three body segments (head, thorax, and abdomen) and three pairs of legs.

However, there are also other classes of arthropods, including Crustacea (lobsters, crabs, and shrimp), Arachnida (spiders, scorpions, and ticks), and Myriapoda (centipedes and millipedes), each with their own unique characteristics and adaptations.

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A terminal moraine is a deposit of sediments formed at the farthest end of a glacier's advance.

The arrangement of sediments within the terminal moraine is typically chaotic and disorganized. The sediments can vary in size from small particles to large boulders, and they are often poorly sorted, meaning that the different sizes of sediments are not well separated from each other. This is because the sediments are deposited rapidly and unevenly as the glacier melts and retreats.

As the ice melts, it releases the sediments it has carried, which are deposited in a disorderly manner, creating a jumbled mix of sediments. The terminal moraine can extend across the entire width of the glacier's path and can be several meters to several kilometers wide, depending on the size of the glacier.

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The molecule that carries the protein code from the nucleus to the ribosome is RNA, specifically a type of RNA called messenger RNA or mRNA. Here option B is the correct answer.

mRNA is synthesized from DNA during transcription, which occurs in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. The DNA serves as a template for the mRNA, which is complementary in sequence to one of the strands of the DNA double helix. Once synthesized, the mRNA molecule carries the genetic code from the DNA to the ribosome, which is the site of protein synthesis.

At the ribosome, the mRNA is read in groups of three nucleotides called codons. Each codon corresponds to a specific amino acid, which is added to the growing protein chain according to the sequence of codons on the mRNA.

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Complete question:

Which molecule carries the protein code from the nucleus to the ribosome?

A - DNA

B - RNA

C - ADP

Gastroenteritis is a type of inflammation and swelling of the small intestine caused by ingesting substances contaminated with viral and bacterial pathogens.

Viral gastroenteritis is the most common cause of gastroenteritis and is usually caused by rotaviruses, noroviruses, and astroviruses while bacterial gastroenteritis is caused by bacteria such as Escherichia coli, Salmonella, Campylobacter jejuni, and Shigella. It is typically spread through the ingestion of contaminated food or water whose symptoms include infectious gastroenteritis include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal pain and cramps, fever, and dehydration. Treatment for infectious gastroenteritis typically involves the replacement of fluids and electrolytes, as well as rest and avoiding certain foods that may irritate the digestive system.

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Helium nuclei can fuse to form elements such as nitrogen.

Nuclear fusion is a process in which atomic nuclei combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing a large amount of energy in the process. This occurs when the atomic nuclei of light elements such as hydrogen or helium are brought close enough together at extremely high temperatures and pressures to overcome the natural repulsion between positively charged nuclei. The process of nuclear fusion is the fundamental energy source of stars, including our sun. In stars, fusion occurs in the core, where temperatures and pressures are high enough to overcome the electrostatic repulsion between atomic nuclei. When hydrogen nuclei fuse together, they form helium nuclei and release energy in the form of light and heat. Nuclear fusion is a potential source of clean and virtually limitless energy on Earth. However, it is difficult to achieve because of the high temperatures and pressures required to initiate and maintain the reaction. Scientists are working on developing practical methods for nuclear fusion, which could provide a safe, sustainable, and low-carbon source of energy for the future.

Here,

In the case of helium nuclei, also known as alpha particles, they can combine to form heavier elements such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen. This process is known as helium burning and occurs in the cores of stars with sufficient mass. The other statements are incorrect. Hydrogen electrons do not become protons during fusion, as electrons are not involved in the process. The fusion reaction does not last for several hundred years, but rather occurs on a much shorter timescale. Large nuclei do not break apart during fusion, but rather combine to form heavier nuclei.

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Complete question:

Which statement about nuclear fusion is correct?

Two hydrogen electrons become protons during fusion.

Helium nuclei can fuse to form elements such as nitrogen.

The fusion reaction lasts for several hundred years.

Large nuclei break apart to form smaller nuclei.